By Renee Begley
Copyright © 2009
Most tales of vampires portray them as revenants that rise from the dead to prey
on their loved ones and others in the area from which they resided in the living
form. Most of them are described as wearing a shroud and their faces were
usually dark, bloated or ruddy in color.
They are nothing like the Victorian vampire so many identify with in
movies and fiction. The pale, aristocratic vampire wasn’t spoken of until the
beginning of the 19th Century and the use of the word vampire wasn’t
popularized until the 18th century.
It was at this time that many tales of vampires spread into Western
Europe from Eastern Europe and the Balkans. There were other names used believed
to be vampires but this particular one was not popular earlier. This of course
led to people becoming afraid and created hysteria culminating in many corpses
being staked in their graves and some being accused of being vampires with dire
consequences in some instances.
Yet in folklore
there were stories of vampire-like creatures in many ancient cultures such as
those in Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome and even in Hebrew lore. Some in that time
period were thought of as demons or evil spirits that plagued man. Then of
course there are writings translated by a priest in 1047 AD, referring to
someone as Upir'
Likhyi
which has been
stated to mean something similar to “wicked vampire” or “foul vampire”. Some say
this is referring to the Priest and others to
Novgorodian Prince
Vladimir Yaroslavovich. The belief is that the premise for the name
came from older Pagan traditions for taking on nicknames. It is not believed it
meant he was literally a vampire as some more recently are trying to promote.
A newer theory on who is being referred to in regard to the controversial
wording is as follows:
“However, in 1982, Swedish Slavicist Anders Sjöberg suggested that “Upir’
likhyi” was in fact an Old Russian transcription or translation of the name of
Öpir Ofeigr, a well-known Swedish rune carver. Sjöberg
argued that Öpir could possibly have lived in Novgorod before moving to Sweden,
considering the connection between
Eastern Scandinavia and Russia at the time. Sjöberg argued
that Öpir could possibly have lived in Novgorod before moving to Sweden,
considering the connection between
Eastern Scandinavia and Russia at the time. This theory is
still controversial, although at least one Swedish historian, Henrik Janson, has
expressed support for it.” 13
The source is what is called a colophon, meaning it was a printers mark or logo,
usually on an introduction page or it’s a short explanation at the end of the
book explaining production notes.
There are mentions of the worship of upyri in other sources but no one knows
what it all actually means even though it has been suggested that it refers to
vampires, so it is interesting but has to be considered an anomaly due to lack
of definitive information. Most scholars would not take such scant information
as a doctrine for any theory. There is mention of vampires in other areas of the
world such as in Ireland which date from the 5th or 6th
century. It appears to be futile to pursue a course of origin.
Many cultures kept an oral history and information was lost or forgotten
over the centuries.
What most think of concerning vampires comes from Slavic origins and appeared
around the 18th Century. This was around the time when folklore which
is verbal and handed down orally was beginning to be collected and written down,
the majority coming out of South Eastern Europe. Most know, if they have any
interest in vampire mythology, what the theories are on the origin of this one
word in particular. It is not definitive but proposed by the nature of the
languages involved.
There have always been stories told to children since ancient times to get them
to go to sleep. One well known tale is common in English speaking countries and
that is the bogeyman but long before that there was Mormo. Greek mythology is
vast and this entity was one of many that are apart of this mythology. Mormo,
now considered to be a vampire by some authors, was a spirit that was supposed
to bite bad children. He was a companion of Hecate. Sometimes a female
vampire-like creature is described and most often in the plays of Aristophanes.
Anton LaVey described Mormo as a male he referred to in the “Satanic Bible” who
was “King of the Ghouls” and also consort of Hecate.
According to this source:
"MORMO
was a female specter that the Greeks used to frighten little children. She was
one of the same class of frightful creatures as Empusa and Lamia. The
Mormolyceia further were said to be able to assume the form of beautiful women
for the purpose of luring young men to bed, where they sucked their blood and
consumed their flesh." 2
It is this last description that has given this creature the title of a vampire
by some and most likely in more modern times. There is some disparity as to
whether this spirit is male or female. Perhaps it was both.
“VRYKOLATIOS
was a
vampire species found on the
island of Santorini known as "Vampire Island". They are described as fiends, who
feast, upon the living.” 3
Santorini is called the “Island of Vampires” or sometimes the “Island of Devils”
for very concrete reasons. More recently it has also been thought to be a
remnant of the lost continent of Atlantis, a theory yet to be proven.
“The island of
Santorini has been long renowned by the Greeks themselves as
the final resting place of many suspected vampires, since the populace of the
island was believed to be particularly adept in dealing with the undead. Nearby
islands would bring the remains of suspected vampires to Santorini for proper,
permanent disposal.”4
These particular vampires were believed to be just as powerful in the daytime,
as in the night. The sunlight did not bother them. Many believed that vampires
could not cross bodies of water.
Therefore it wasn’t uncommon to bury suspected vampires on islands such as
Santorini. Water was believed to be a purifier and it was because of some of the
superstitions about vampires that many ended up buried on Santorini. Some
attribute the preservation of the corpses to the rich volcanic soil on the
island.
“It was reputed as having so many vampires buried there that the phrase
“sending vampires to Santorini” has a meaning similar to “selling freezers to
Eskimos”. They don’t need any.” 5
Santorini and the islets Thirassia and Kameni are believed to have many vampires
buried there, basically acting as mass dumping grounds for the undead. This
again was because of the belief that vampires could not cross salt water.
Greek vampires are nothing like either Eastern European vampires or Hollywood
stereotypes. The Vrykolakas is another name used in Greece for the vampire.
These particular vampires are not blood drinkers and cannot be stopped with a
mere string of garlic or sunlight. This is a more modern idea and the word is
derived from a Slavic origin, the Bulgarian върколак "(vŭrkolak)" meaning
"werewolf" or specifically “wolf fur”. What is interesting about this definition
is the belief in Greece that if you kill a werewolf it will return as a powerful
vampire, something between a vrykolakas and a werewolf according to some
sources.
“In
Greek folklore, vampirism could occur through various means. Vrykolakas were
usually thought to be indistinguishable from living people, giving rise to many
folk tales with this theme. Crosses and
antidoron (blessed bread) from the church were used as wards in
different places. To prevent vampires from rising from the dead, their hearts
were pierced with iron nails whilst resting in their graves or their bodies
burned and the ashes scattered. Because the Church opposed burning people who
had received the myron of
chrismation in the baptism ritual, cremation was considered a last
resort.”
9
This probably accounts for the reason they were isolated and buried on islands
due to the prohibition of burning the bodies. Other sources which are quoted
farther along in this article mention burning of the bodies so I suspect it
might depend on the location and beliefs of the inhabitants of certain areas of
Greece.
An article called the “Dark Side of Santorini,” details the Vrykolakas
description and behavior in this manner:
“According to legend, locals who died violently, lived a sinful life or
didn't get a proper burial were taken over by an evil spirit and became
vrykolakas. Even a cat jumping over your corpse before you were buried could
result in you turning into one of the undead.
Death plays an important role in many Greek legends, expressing a
deep-rooted belief in the sanctity of life. Legend has it that a vampire would
knock on the door of a house, calling out the names of the residents. If they
didn't reply straight away, it would pass on, but woe betide those who opened
the door. To avoid a sticky end and ghoulish transformation, superstition
dictates that you should never open a door until the second knock.
Vrykolakas were said to be just as active at midday as at midnight and would
kill a victim by sitting on his chest and suffocating him while he slept. In the
days when medical knowledge was hazy, a heart attack could therefore be
attributed to a vrykolakas. Driving a stake through its heart or exposing it to
sunlight will not work in Greece. Traditionally, vrykolakas-slaying was a
weekend activity, as the creature was restricted to its coffin between Saturday
evening and Sunday morning. As with all vampire stories, there were conflicting
arguments as to the best way of destroying the body, but the most popular
included exorcism by a priest, impaling, beheading and finally burning the body,
to free the vrykolakas from its living death and allow local residents to sleep
soundly.” 6
Those on the
island remember some of the old tales told and passed down through families and
some chalk them off to superstition yet others will not talk about any of the
types of vampires known to be buried there or on surrounding islets. It is
believed that some still harbor the old superstitions, or either will not take
any chances by speaking of them. “Look out for sailors taking boats across to
Thirassia or Kameni, the so-called "vampire graveyards". Traditionally crew
members will form the sign of the cross with ropes before tying up to the pier.
This long-standing superstition is believed to protect boats from vrykolakas
looking to destroy craft that sail too close to their islands.”6
Even though I have mentioned a few tales of vampires from Greece, the ancient
Greeks did not believe in individuals returning from the dead to prey upon the
living. It wasn’t until after their contact with Christians that these types of
tales started to appear, in fact they would not have been referred to as demons.
The daimon in the Greek culture was more akin to a muse or source of
inspiration like a guardian angel and had no sinister meaning at that time. The
Lamiae and other such creatures would not have been referred to as either
vampires or demons prior to the advent of Christianity. Later in time after the
exposure to Christianity some tried to add this meaning but it is not original
to the Greek culture. The Vrykolakas I mentioned previously is the most common
name used in Greece for a vampire in more modern times. There were other names
as mentioned previously depending on the location in Greece, but they don’t
appear to be ancient.
According to one source these are the reasons given for undead vampires in the
Greek culture:
·
Those who were stillborn or
otherwise died without having received baptism.
·
Those who were conceived or
born on a holy day.
·
Those who died
excommunicated.
·
Those who died while being
heretics or apostates.
·
Those who died after having
led sinful lives
·
Those who died who were
practitioners of sorcery or witchcraft.
·
Those whose corpse an
animal had jumped over before burial.
·
Those who did not receive a
proper religious burial. Those who had eaten the flesh of an animal that had
been killed by a vampire.
·
Those who died as victims
of a vampire, especially true when vampires were blamed for a plague or an
epidemic of disease.7
When they did begin talking about the vampires it was
between the 17th and 20th
century and the corpses were actually believed to be animated by a demon and not
a victim of a bite or curse. This usually related to someone who was in some way
disconnected from the church for the most part. This disconnection from the
church enabled the demon to enter the body as the soul of the person left after
death. The following is a quote from “Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek
Religion,” by John Lawson.
"It is a popular belief that most of the dead, those who have lived bad
lives or who have been excommunicated....become vrykolakes; that is to say,
after the separation of the soul from the body there enters into the latter an
evil spirit which takes the place of the soul....it keeps the body as its
dwelling place, and it runs swift as lightning wherever it lists....And the
trouble is that it does not remain solitary, but makes everyone, who dies while
it is about, like to itself, so that in a short space of time it gets together a
large train of followers. The common practice of the vrykolakes is to seat
themselves upon those who are still asleep and by their great weight to create
an agonizing sense of oppression. There is great danger that the sufferer might
himself expire, and himself too be turned into a vrykolakas....This monster, as
time goes on, becomes more audacious and blood-thirsty, so that it is able to
devastate whole villages." 7
Although most of these superstitions about vampires in Greece have been
relegated to the past there are still a few that hold to old traditions. It is
interesting to note how the vampire lore and the werewolf legends are crossed in
this culture. If one were to mention a Vrykolakas to a Greek person in present
day they would most likely think of the Eastern European Dracula-like vampire
rather than the traditional view in years past of the Vrykolakas.
Another word that many say means vampire in Greece is Brucolacas but
Baring-Gould who wrote the definitive work on were-wolf lore has this to say:
“The Greek were-wolf, or brucolacas is also closely related to the vampire;
and the "modern Greeks call any savage-looking man with dark complexion, and
with distorted misshapen limbs, a brucolacas, and suppose him to be invested
with the power of running in the wolf-form." The white Russians hold the
were-wolf to be a man who has incurred the wrath of the devil, whereby, in
punishment, he is transformed into a wolf and sent among his relations, "who
recognize and feed him well. He is a most amiably disposed were-wolf, for he
does no mischief and testifies his affection for his kindred by licking their
hands." But he is very restless, and always roving about from place to place;
and we are not told if he ever recovers his human likeness.” 10 (Note: this
was taken from the Book of Werewolves but was not annotated on the site so the
location of the actual book is given in the references)
Most sites you will find on the net will tell you Brucolacas means vampire to
the Greeks but it didn’t originally just as the word Vrykolakas had an entirely
different meaning connected also to the were-wolf.
It appears that the were-wolf and the vampire are similar in a very
definitive way in Greek folklore. It has been suggested by one writer that the
reason for this is shamanistic ritual practices. The individual wore wolf skins
and projected another form from the grave to the person being attacked, in a
sense a sort of astral projection. Again Montague Summers also has stated that
in life a man could be a were-wolf who upon death becomes a vampire.
This may very well be the folklore belief that connects the two to one
word.
“We must remember that in folklore the vampire rarely
physically leaves his grave, preferring instead to ply his trade in incorporeal
form. Visum et repertum, the report written in 1732 regarding the epidemic of
vampirism started by the infamous Arnod Paole, describes a woman's attack by a
vampire as follows (translated by Paul Barber): "In addition, the haiduk Jowiza
reports that his stepdaughter, by the name of Stanacka, lay down to sleep
fifteen days ago, fresh and healthy, but at midnight she started up out of her
sleep with a terrible cry, feared and trembling, and complained that she had
been throttled by the son of a haiduk by the name of Milloe, who had died nine
weeks earlier, whereupon she had experienced a great pain in her chest and
become worse hour by hour until finally she died on the third day."
This is a typical account in many ways, as the vampires
make their presence felt in dreams, not dissimilar to medieval incubi and
succubi.” 11/12
There of course has
been a change in viewpoint about the Greek Lamiae, the Empusa and the Mormo. All
of these creatures are female from this perspective. They have been included as
being types of vampires due to their behaviors and the drinking of blood but
this concept was unknown to the Greeks until a later time and they were just
thought of as evil. They were thought of more in the line of ghouls rather than
a vampire that is a more modern concept. Obviously the hallmark for most
vampires is the drinking of blood from many sources and the hallmark of the
werewolf was cannibalism. Somewhere along the way the lines blurred. Most of
this is due to the modern impact in the fascination with the vampire and
immortality whereas the Lamia, Empusa and Mormo were literally demi-goddesses
who had behaviors recognized as vampire traits in the modern era. All of them
are considered precursors by most scholars to the later more modern vampire
tales.
In delving into the
Greek vampires, it plainly depends on the personal concept of the vampire as to
whether you consider some of the earlier deities as vampires. Many writers have
come to this conclusion but as for myself I do not consider drinking blood to
necessarily define what is thought of as a vampire in Greece or any other
country. Many spoken about were blood thirsty gods or goddesses and others
related to the misconception of the
death process, while still others from some other perception. Folklore is filled
with superstition, mysticism and beliefs indigenous to the area and many of them
migrate to surrounding cultures over time.
References: